Jumada al-Akhirah 7, 1447 (November, 28, 2025)
Assalaamun Alaykum Warahmatullah Taallah Wabarakatuhu
Good Neighborliness: Foundations, Principles, and Contemporary Relevance
Good neighborliness occupies a central position in Islamic teaching and practice. Far from being a minor social virtue, it forms part of a comprehensive moral framework through which Islam seeks to build cohesive, compassionate, and morally responsible societies. The Qur’an, the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), and the long tradition of Muslim scholarship consistently emphasize the dignity of neighbors, the duty of mutual support, and the imperative of peaceful coexistence. In an era of rising urbanization, cultural diversity, and global tension, revisiting Islamic teachings on neighborliness offers insight into how Muslims can positively shape communal harmony in today’s world.
Foundations in the Qur’an
The Qur’an provides several guidelines that place neighborly relations within the broader ethics of social responsibility. In Surah al-Nisā’ (4:36), Allah commands believers to “worship none but Him, and be good to parents, relatives, orphans, the needy, the near neighbor, the distant neighbor, the companion at your side, the traveler, and those under your authority.” This verse does something extraordinary: it explicitly categorizes neighbors and places kindness to them alongside foundational duties such as worship and charity. Islamic scholars note that by listing different types of neighbors—near, far, related, unrelated, Muslim, and non-Muslim—the Qur’an establishes a universal ethic of neighborliness that transcends boundaries of ethnicity, religion, and social class.
The Qur’an also discourages actions that harm social cohesion. Backbiting, mockery, suspicion, and arrogance are condemned (Qur’an 49:11–12), not merely as personal vices but as threats to community harmony. The Qur’anic worldview, therefore, connects personal piety with communal well-being; a good Muslim is not only devoted to God but also beneficial to the people around him.
Teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)
The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) provided practical frameworks for neighborly conduct. Numerous hadiths demonstrate how insistently he taught Muslims to protect the rights of neighbors. One of the most famous narrations states: “Jibrīl (Gabriel) continued to advise me on treating the neighbor well until I thought he would include him among my heirs.” (Bukhari and Muslim). This statement highlights not only the importance of neighbors but also their elevated moral and emotional status in Islam.
The Prophet declared: “He is not a believer whose neighbor is not safe from his harm.” (Sahih Muslim). Scholars interpret this narration to mean that causing harm to neighbors—physically, emotionally, or materially—constitutes a failure in faith. Thus, good neighborliness becomes both a social duty and a spiritual measure.
In his daily life, the Prophet modeled extraordinary compassion toward neighbors. He visited the sick, consoled those in distress, and exchanged gifts, even with neighbors who initially opposed him. The Prophet’s famous kindness to the Jewish neighbor who treated him harshly demonstrates the Islamic ideal of responding to hostility with grace. His willingness to build bridges across religious identities set the foundation for inclusive coexistence in plural societies.
Classical and Contemporary Scholarly Views
Classical scholars like Imam Al-Ghazali, Ibn Hajar, and Ibn Taymiyyah elaborated the rights of neighbors into practical guidelines. Their writings outline responsibilities such as avoiding harm, sharing food, offering greetings, visiting the sick, giving gifts, and assisting in times of difficulty. Some scholars extended these obligations to include helping neighbors with daily chores, resolving disputes, and maintaining environmental cleanliness.
Modern Muslim scholars connect these teachings with contemporary realities. They emphasize how urbanization has weakened social bonds, making Islamic principles of neighborliness more relevant than ever. In multi-religious societies, such as Nigeria, Malaysia, Indonesia, and parts of East Africa, Islamic neighborliness serves as a framework for interfaith harmony and peaceful cohabitation. The principles also support broader humanitarian values, such as community engagement, social welfare, and conflict prevention.
Ethics of Good Neighborliness in Islam
Islamic ethics see neighborliness as an embodiment of faith in action. Several dimensions stand out:
i) Protection from Harm
Islam prohibits harming neighbors through noise, pollution, aggressive behavior, property infringement, or any form of intimidation. Even emotional harm, such as gossiping or ridiculing neighbors, is discouraged.
ii) Assistance and Solidarity
Neighbors are urged to help one another during illness, bereavement, childbirth, or financial difficulty. Assistance may take simple forms, such as offering food, running errands, or checking in regularly.
iii) Respect and Courtesy
Islam commands Muslims to maintain good manners with neighbors—greetings, polite speech, respect for privacy, and maintaining boundaries. These small acts accumulate into a culture of mutual respect.
iv) Inclusivity and Non-Discrimination
The Islamic vision of neighborliness does not restrict kindness to Muslims. Non-Muslim neighbors share the same rights and are entitled to the same respect and protection. The Prophet’s interactions with Jews, Christians, and polytheists in Madina reflect this inclusivity.
v) Cooperative Living
Islam encourages neighbors to engage in shared activities that strengthen community bonds—collective cleaning, peaceful dispute resolution, and participation in communal event.
Good Neighborliness in Contemporary Muslim Societies
In modern contexts, where societies are increasingly diverse, Islamic principles of neighborliness offer pathways to peaceful coexistence. In Nigeria, for example, where Muslim and Christian communities live side by side, understanding Islamic teachings on respecting and supporting neighbors can reduce tension and promote unity. Muslim communities in urban centers such as Lagos, Abuja, Kano, and Kaduna benefit socially when they practice the prophetic model of courtesy, cooperation, and non-harm.
Globally, the concept is also valuable for countering negative stereotypes about Muslims. When Muslims embody kindness and responsibility toward neighbors—Muslim or not—they reinforce the image of Islam as a religion of compassion and peace. Muslim minorities in Western countries often cite good neighborliness as a powerful tool for community integration and da‘wah (invitation to Islam). through character.
Furthermore, in humanitarian crises, such as natural disasters or communal conflicts, neighborly solidarity becomes a moral duty. Islamic teachings encourage Muslims to be the first responders for their neighbors, providing shelter, food, protection, and emotional support.
Challenges and Opportunities
Despite these lofty principles, modern challenges such as social isolation, economic pressure, and digital lifestyles weaken neighborly ties. Many people do not know those who live next door. Overcoming this requires intentional effort guided by Islamic teachings. Simple steps—regular greetings, sharing meals, community Islamic programs, interfaith dialogues, and neighborhood volunteer projects—can help rebuild lost connections.
Mosques also play a vital role. The Prophet’s mosque in Madina served not only as a place of worship but as a community center. Therefore, mosques could foster neighborhood bonds through welfare programs, cleaning initiatives, counseling, and social events that welcome all residents regardless of faith.
In summary, good neighborliness in Islam is far more than a polite custom; it is a moral and spiritual obligation rooted deeply in the Qur’an and Sunnah. By emphasizing protection from harm, mutual assistance, respect, and inclusiveness, Islam envisions neighborhoods as living units of compassion and cooperation. In a world marked by fragmentation and tension, practicing Islamic neighborliness can transform relationships, strengthen communities, and promote peaceful coexistence across religious and cultural divides. It remains one of the most practical and universally relevant teachings of Islam—an invitation to build better societies one neighbor at a time.
Allah SWT is oft forgiving, most merciful
…and this.
The Lost Madhhabs: The Rise and Fall of Forgotten Jurisprudential Schools in Islam
The four schools of Islamic jurisprudence (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali) are widely known and followed across the Muslim world. They have preserved and enriched the Islamic legal tradition for centuries. Yet few are aware that these four schools are the last survivors of a much larger family of once-flourishing madhahib (legal schools). In early Islamic history, more than ninety distinct schools existed, each founded by an imam of knowledge and insight. Today, all but four have vanished.
What happened to those other schools?
Why did their voices go silent?
And what does their disappearance mean for Islamic jurisprudence today?
This is the story of the extinct madhahib — the great schools that once shaped the ummah’s legal imagination, only to be buried by time, politics, and changing societal forces.
A Glorious Beginning: The Diversity of Early Fiqh
In the generations following the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, the Muslim world witnessed a vibrant explosion of scholarly activity. The Companions and their students, the Tabi‘in, spread across the Islamic lands, teaching, interpreting, and deducing rulings from the Qur’an and Sunnah.
This era saw the rise of numerous jurists who each had distinct methodologies in reasoning, authentication, consensus, and analogy. Some leaned toward strict textualism, others emphasised qiyas (analogy) or maslahah (public welfare). Each school drew strength from its founder’s personality and scholarly method.
Among the most notable extinct schools were:
– The School of al-Awza’i (d. 157 AH) in the Levant
– The School of al-Thawri (d. 161 AH) in Kufa
– The School of al-Layth ibn Sa‘d (d. 175 AH) in Egypt
– The School of Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d. 310 AH)
– The School of al-Daoud al-Zahiri (d. 270 AH), founder of the literalist Zahiri madhhab
At one point in history, Basra alone had six independent schools coexisting. The Islamic world was not divided into four madhahib — it was a dynamic, evolving arena of ijtihad and scholarly debate.
Why Did So Many Schools Disappear?
The extinction of these schools wasn’t due to intellectual weakness. Many of them were led by scholars whose piety, brilliance, and depth of knowledge rivalled — and in some cases exceeded — those of the four surviving imams.
Instead, the disappearance was largely due to external forces, such as:
i) Lack of Students or Institutional Support
Many schools faded simply because their founders didn’t establish strong networks of students, or because their legal opinions weren’t documented systematically. When the imam died, his legacy wasn’t preserved.
ii) State Patronage and Political Support
In some regions, rulers favoured certain schools over others. For example, the Abbasids supported the Hanafi school, while the Ayyubids favoured the Shafi‘i school. State funding, judicial appointments, and official decrees played a major role in consolidating some schools and marginalising others.
iii) The Power of Codification
The schools that survived invested in institutionalisation: they wrote encyclopedias, trained judges, and built enduring legal traditions. The Hanafi, Shafi‘i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools each developed legal texts, commentaries, and usul frameworks that could be passed down and debated across centuries.
iv) The Mongol Invasions and Regional Upheaval
Devastating wars and social upheavals destroyed many centres of learning. The Mongol invasions wiped out entire cities, libraries, and communities, causing some schools to vanish completely.
v) Fusion or Absorption
Some schools didn’t disappear — they were absorbed. The opinions of scholars like al-Awza‘i or al-Thawri lived on in the writings of the surviving schools. Their views may have ceased being followed independently, but they were preserved as minority opinions within other madhahib.
Great Imams, Forgotten Schools
Among the most striking examples of a vanished school is that of Imam al-Layth ibn Saʿd — a giant of Islamic jursprudence in Egypt. Born in 94 AH and passing in 175 AH, al-Layth was a master of hadith and fiqh, renowned across the Muslim world. Yet despite his brilliance, his school is no longer followed. Why?
Imam al-Shafi‘i — who studied under Imam Malik and founded his own school — once said:
“Al-Layth was more knowledgeable than Malik, but his students failed to carry his knowledge.”
This statement sums up the fate of many schools. Even the greatest of scholars cannot preserve a madhhab without disciples, books, institutions, and a structured legal methodology. Al-Layth’s opinions were known and respected, but they were not systematically preserved. Egypt eventually became a stronghold of the Maliki madhhab under state support, then later a centre for the Shafi‘i school, leaving al-Layth’s school to fade into obscurity.
The Zahiri School:* Literalism and Isolation
Another significant case is the Zahiri (literalist) school, founded by Da’ud ibn ‘Ali al-Zahiri and later developed by the legendary Ibn Hazm of al-Andalus. The Zahiri madhhab rejected analogy (qiyas), public interest (maslahah), and juristic preference (istihsan), insisting on a strict literal interpretation of the Qur’an and Sunnah.
The Zahiris produced towering scholars and powerful legal arguments, but their uncompromising methodology made them isolated. They often clashed with other jurists and failed to gain institutional support. The Zahiri madhhab eventually disappeared from most regions, though some of its ideas continued to influence scholars across time, even as an undercurrent.
Today, some fringe movements claim to revive Zahiri literalism, but often without the depth or scholarship of the original school.
The Danger of Narrowing the Horizon of Fiqh
While the survival of the four madhahib is a blessing, their dominance has also led to a narrowing of the Muslim legal horizon. At times, it produced an environment where ijtihad (independent reasoning) was discouraged, and scholarly diversity was reduced to sectarian rigidity.
Some scholars — including reformers and revivalists — have argued that the closure of the “gates of ijtihad” limited the ummah’s ability to address new challenges. Others argue that limiting legal practice to four schools ensured consistency and avoided chaos.
But the truth is more complex.
Throughout Islamic history, the major schools themselves were not monolithic. Within each madhhab existed multiple viewpoints, minority opinions, and evolving jurisprudence. The classical scholars did not see disagreement as division — they saw it as rahmah (mercy) and a sign of intellectual health.
What We Lost… and What We Must Revive
The extinction of over 90 schools of jurisprudence isn’t just a historical curiosity. It’s a reminder that Islamic law has always been dynamic, responsive, and diverse — until it was gradually reduced to just a few voices.
We lost:
Brilliant methodologies that offered unique approaches to legal reasoning
Fiqh tailored to different regions and realities
The courage of ijtihad — jurists speaking truth without fear of authority or conformity
But these voices are not gone forever. Their books, opinions, and ideas remain, waiting to be rediscovered by a new generation of scholars and students.
Conclusion
Toward a Revived Legal Spirit
The story of the extinct madhahib isn’t just about loss — it’s about responsibility. As Muslims today navigate a world of unprecedented challenges, we need to revive the spirit of scholarship that once defined our civilisation. Not by inventing new religions or abandoning the madhahib — but by honouring their legacy, embracing their diversity, and re-opening the doors of reason, sincerity, and scholarly courage.
The future of Islamic jurisprudence will not come from blind imitation, nor from chaotic innovation, but from a balanced path that remembers the richness of its past while facing the world ahead with clarity and confidence.
Sunna Files
Let’s beseech Allah SWT:
“O Allah, indeed we ask of You for Your virtue (bounty) and Your mercy, for indeed, no one possesses these except You.”
May Allah SWT guide us aright.
Endeavour to read Surah Al-Kahf (Chapter 18: Verses 1-110).
Juma’ah Mabrouq
